The reliance on traditional cooking fuels such as firewood and charcoal remains widespread across Africa, symbolizing both energy poverty and climate injustice. Despite progress in the global energy transition, many people in Africa still cook with dirty, inefficient fuels, leading to severe health risks and environmental harm. These communities are excluded from clean cooking solutions and bear the brunt of the climate crisis, making this an urgent climate justice issue.
Energy Poverty and Social Injustice
Energy poverty is one of the most pressing challenges in Africa today. The lack of access to clean energy is not just an environmental concern but a violation of basic human rights. Energy access is a fundamental right, but remains beyond the reach of the majority of Africans due to cost and accessibility. Approximately 600 million people or 43% of the continent’s total population lack access to electricity according to the International Energy Agency (IEA). The majority of the population, especially in rural areas rely on firewood and charcoal. Spending more time in and around kitchens and cooking areas, women and children are especially vulnerable–bearing the brunt of household air pollution enduring the social, economic and health consequences of inadequate cooking methods.
Mary Kapembwa, a housekeeper in Lusaka, Zambia declares “My mother died of lung cancer last year. I breathe in charcoal smoke every day. I only pray I will be OK.” Robert Ssentongo, a charcoal trader in Kampala, Uganda shared similar sentiments: “Demand for charcoal is high, but it cannot last forever. The trees are all being cut and prices are rising quickly. People need something else to burn for cooking, but people living in poverty have no choice for now.” These quotes encapsulate the social injustice that stems from energy exclusion. The people most dependent on traditional fuels are the least equipped to change their circumstances. The poverty-stricken populations that bear the weight of energy poverty are falling behind in the global energy transition, exacerbating existing inequalities.
Access to clean energy solutions, whether through improved cook stoves or biogas systems is crucial to tackling this crisis. Rural communities are often unable to access such technologies due to cost, lack of infrastructure and insufficient government support. Energy exclusion is not just a local issue, but a global challenge that perpetuates poverty, undermines human dignity and contributes to the growing climate crisis.
Deforestation, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Justice
The environmental toll of traditional cooking methods is staggering and fits squarely within the broader context of climate justice. Reports in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ghana, Nigeria and Zambia suggest charcoal production is one of the leading causes of deforestation in Africa. The environmental costs of cutting down trees for firewood and charcoal are profound. Kassoum Tuo, Regional Climate Adaptation and Biodiversity Advisor at the World University Service of Canada (WUSC), explained that, “A major source of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions is unsustainable cooking with solid fuels such as charcoal, wood, crop residue and animal dung.” The inefficient combustion of these fuels in traditional stoves emits harmful pollutants including carbon dioxide, methane and black carbon that all contribute to global warming.
Africa’s forests are the continent’s lungs, absorbing carbon dioxide and providing essential ecosystem services such as water regulation and soil protection. However, the growing demand for wood fuel is contributing to rapid deforestation. According to the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 90% of the wood harvested in Africa is used for energy purposes. The African Union Development Agency (AUDA) suggests 29% of this wood is converted into charcoal resulting in widespread deforestation and destruction of biodiversity. This is not just an environmental issue—it is a climate resilience issue. Forests play a crucial role in helping communities adapt to the impacts of climate change, including extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. When forests are destroyed, it further diminishes the ability of vulnerable populations to cope with climate shocks.
The production of charcoal is incredibly environmentally destructive. More needs to be done to ensure that we plant more trees every year to replace those cut down and discuss how we can help prevent destruction, argues Brenda Mpande, Social Safeguards Consultant with the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). These emissions contribute to a vicious cycle of climate degradation, weakening Africa’s resilience to climate change and making the continent more vulnerable to its impacts. Addressing traditional cooking methods and transitioning to cleaner fuels will not only improve health and reduce emissions, but begin to address the systemic climate injustice that affects the most vulnerable.
Widening Gap
The systemic issues of energy exclusion are further compounded by the growing imbalance between biomass supply and demand across the continent. As Sibongile Mavimbela, Senior Programme Officer for Environment and Climate Change at the Southern African Development Community (SADC), points out: “Biomass demand and supply projections show a widening gap–supply is expected to decrease while demand rises due to population growth.”
This imbalance not only threatens the environment, but exacerbates poverty and energy insecurity in already vulnerable communities. Mavimbela emphasizes that the cost of biomass energy will likely rise, disproportionately affecting the rural poor and contributing to unsustainable exploitation of natural resources. “Vulnerable communities are increasingly turning to natural resources, especially charcoal, to offset falling agricultural incomes,” she warns, creating a vicious cycle of deforestation and environmental degradation that weakens climate resilience.
The widening gap highlights the urgent need to address energy inequality and reinforces the call for equitable energy access as a matter of climate justice. Ensuring clean cooking solutions are accessible to those most in need is an environmental imperative and a critical step promoting social equity and climate resilience.
Global Commitment and Policy Solutions
International collaboration is essential to tackle the clean cooking crisis and ensure climate justice. While the issue may appear local, sustainable solutions must be global. International financial institutions, governments and development organizations should explore ways to increase support for clean cooking initiatives in Africa. This could include direct investment in affordable clean cooking technologies and the development of local supply chains to make these technologies accessible to rural communities.
Governments in many African countries have taken some initial steps toward addressing the clean cooking crisis. In Zambia, the government issued a ban on charcoal production permits in three districts to curb deforestation and mitigate the impacts of climate change. More must be done. Policies that support the development and distribution of clean cooking solutions should be a priority for policymakers. It’s time for the world to recognize that energy poverty is a justice issue, states Granny Lesiamang, Founding Director at Clauseph BioFuels and Programs Manager at Green Africa Youth Organization (GAYO) in Botswana. Global investment in clean cooking is urgently required, she continues. Governments and international actors need to collaborate to ensure that clean cooking technologies are not just accessible, but affordable to those most in need.
Policy Recommendations
A number of critical policy solutions are required to address this crisis. Investment in targeted rural energy access programs is essential. Rural areas that are disproportionately affected by energy poverty require specific programs designed to ensure clean cooking solutions reach those who need them the most. These initiatives could provide rural communities with the necessary infrastructure and support to adopt cleaner cooking technologies, improving health outcomes and contributing to broader climate goals.
Public-private partnerships might possibly be leveraged to lower the cost of production and distribution of clean cooking technologies, reducing the cost passed on to consumers. Such partnerships could also support the development of local supply chains to drive down costs and create jobs within local economies. Combining affordable financing with market-driven solutions can ensure that clean cooking technologies are both accessible and sustainable for low-income households.
Governments and financial institutions can explore ways to work together to create low-interest loans, micro-financing options or pay-as-you-go systems to allow low-income households to gradually transition to clean cooking solutions without the upfront financial burden. Such financing models could make clean cooking technologies more accessible and ensure communities have the financial flexibility to invest in their long-term health and environmental benefits.
Sustained behavioral change campaigns aimed at educating communities about the health and environmental benefits of clean cooking are also required alternatives suggests Bernadette Ndema, a communications specialist in Uganda. These campaigns are necessary to shift cultural norms and perceptions to help people understand the long-term advantages of switching to cleaner fuels and more efficient cooking methods.
It’s Time for Urgent Action
The crisis undermines both human rights and climate resilience. Addressing this challenge through investments in clean cooking technologies and support to affected communities can protect health, improve livelihoods and contribute to the fight against climate change. Ensuring that climate justice is central to Africa's energy transition is critical for a more equitable and sustainable future.
Christopher Burke is a senior advisor at WMC Africa, a communications and advisory agency located in Kampala, Uganda. With over 30 years of experience, he has worked extensively on social, political and economic development issues focused on governance, public health, the environment, agriculture, community mobilization, communications, advocacy, peace-building and international relations in Asia and Africa.
